Iron in the Industrial Revolution

Iron in the Industrial Revolution Iron was one of the most basic requirements of the rapidly industrializing British economy, and the country certainly had plenty of raw materials. However, in 1700, the iron industry was not efficient and most iron was imported into Britain. By 1800, after technical developments, the iron industry was a net exporter. Iron in the 18th Century The pre-revolution iron industry was based on small, localized production facilities sited near essential ingredients such as water, limestone, and charcoal. This produced multiple small monopolies on production and a set of small iron producing areas like South Wales. While Britain had good iron ore reserves, the iron produced was of low quality with plenty of impurities, limiting its use. There was plenty of demand but not much was produced as wrought iron, which had many of the impurities hammered out, took a long time to make, and was available in cheaper imports from Scandinavia. Thus, there was a bottleneck for industrialists to solve. At this stage, all the techniques of iron smelting were old and traditional and the key method was the blast furnace, used from 1500 onward. This was relatively quick  but produced brittle iron. Did the Iron Industry Fail Britain? There is a traditional view that the iron industry failed to satisfy the British market from 1700 to 1750, which instead had to rely on imports and couldn’t advance. This was because iron simply couldn’t meet demand and over half of the iron used came from Sweden. While the British industry was competitive in war, when the costs of imports rose, peace was problematic. The size of furnaces remained small in this era, limited output, and the technology was dependent upon the amount of timber in the area. As transport was poor, everything needed to be close together, further limiting production. Some small ironmasters tried to group together to get around this issue, with some success. In addition, British ore was plentiful but contained lots of sulfur and phosphorous, which made brittle iron. The technology to deal with this problem was lacking. The industry was also highly labor-intensive and, while the labor supply was good, this produced a very high cost. Consequently, British iron was used for cheap, poor quality items like nails. The Development of the Industry As the industrial revolution developed, so did the iron industry. A set of innovations, from different materials to new techniques, allowed iron production to expand greatly. In 1709, Darby became the first man to smelt iron with coke (which is made from heating coal). Although this was a key date, the impact was limited - as the iron was still brittle. Around 1750, a steam engine was first used to pump water back up to power a water wheel. This process only lasted a small time as the industry became better able to move around as coal took over. In 1767, Richard Reynolds helped costs fall and raw material travel farther by developing the first iron rails, although this was superseded by canals. In 1779, the first all-iron bridge was built, really demonstrating what could be done with enough iron, and stimulating interest in the material. The construction relied on carpentry techniques. Watt’s rotary action steam engine in 1781 helped increase the furnace size and was used for bellows, helping to boost production. Arguably, the key development came in 1783-4, when Henry Cort introduced the puddling and rolling techniques. These were ways of getting all the impurities out of iron  and allowing large-scale production, and a vast increase in it. The iron industry began to relocate to coal fields, which usually had iron ore nearby. Developments elsewhere also helped to boost iron by stimulating demand, such as the increase in steam engines (which needed iron), which in turn boosted iron innovations as one industry bred new ideas elsewhere. Another major development was the Napoleonic Wars, due to increased demand by the military for iron and the effects of Napoleon’s attempted blockade of British ports in the Continental System. From 1793 to 1815, British iron production quadrupled. Blast furnaces got bigger. In 1815, when peace broke out, the price of iron and demand fell, but by then Britain had become the largest European producer of iron. The New Iron Age 1825 has been called the start of the new Iron Age, as the iron industry experienced a massive stimulation from the heavy demand for railways, which needed iron rails, iron in the stock, bridges, tunnels and more. Meanwhile, civilian use increased, as everything which could be made of iron began to be in demand, even window frames. Britain became renowned for railway iron. After the initial high demand in Britain dropped, the country exported iron for railway construction abroad. The Iron Revolution in History British iron production in 1700 was 12,000 metric tons a year. This rose to over two million by 1850. Although Darby is sometimes cited as the major innovator, it was Cort’s new methods which had the major effect and his principles are still used today. The location of the industry experienced as big a change as that of production and technology, as businesses were able to move to coalfields. But the effects of innovation in other industries on iron (and in coal and steam) cannot be overstated, and neither can the effect of iron developments on them.

Pig Lovers and Pig Haters Essays

Pig Lovers and Pig Haters Essays Pig Lovers and Pig Haters Essay Pig Lovers and Pig Haters Essay Harris reasoning brings the history of the people and the land into account. They were nomadic pastoralist and the climate and location simply was not good to be raising pigs. They would have required too much energy to raise, for not as much output for the people. Harris took and ecological approach to explain away pig hatred. When it comes to pig lovers, Harris goes into great detail on the Marina clans in New Guiana. Long story short, they raise pigs because they are holy and need to sacrifice them to their ancestors in order to declare war and make peace. They are raised for years on end, ND take up more and more energy as the years go on. However, unlike the pig haters, the Marina people live in an area perfect for pigs. Pigs also give them necessary nutrients and protein for their fighting. Harris states, Rapport insists correctly, I believe- that in a fundamental ecological sense, the size of a groups pig surplus does indicate its productive and military strength and does validate or invalidate its territorial claims. In other words, the entire system results in an efficient distribution of plants, animals, and people in the region, from a human ecological point of view'(56). Both of his examples show materialism taking place in cultures and he goes further in to explain how these pigs actually affect the lives of the people and, in essence, help structure their everyday culture. This reading was different from Radcliff-Browns reading, because where R. B. Would give you insight into what was hipping within a culture or within a society, Harris went into explanations about why it is happening. He also went even more in depth to explain the evolution of possible theories to explain the current behavior of the societies. He didnt simply stick you with his idea and leave it at that; he resented explanations for what people during different stretches of time may have been, or were, thinking about the topic, and showed how it evolved into his own theory. R. B. , on the other hand, gave a straight forward, this is what you see, this is what you get approach. My first question is who is Cashew? I dont have much knowledge on this culture and they Just threw his name into the reading without any form of explanation on who he is/was. My second question is about the rumba tree. The reading talked about once the tree gets pulled out, the next round of fighting will begin and you ant to pull yours before your neighbor does. If the neighbor does indeed pull their tree out first, do they warn them that a fight is about to start, or do they Just attack? . Pig haters- Jews, Moslems, and Christians -God of ancient Hebrews denounced the pig as unclean, a beast that pollutes if it is tasted or touched -However, pigs convert grains and tubers into high-grade fats and protein more efficiently than any other animal Why hate? Pig is a dirty animal-(but other animals are Just as dirty)-recognized at beginning of Renaissance when rabbi Moodiness said swines flesh has a bad and damaging effect upon the body 19th cent. discovered trichinosis was caused by eating undercooked pork- verified rabbis findings (but cooked pork is fine to eat! ) Cashew must have something else in mind other than protecting the health of the people Most Jewish and Moslem theologians have stopped looking for a naturalistic basis of pig hatred. A frankly mystical stance had recently gained favor, in which the grace afforded by conformity to dietary taboos is said to depend upon not knowing exactly what Cashew had in mind and in not trying to find out. (39) Modern anthropologists Frazer- pigs like all UN-clean animals, were originally divine. This is NO help b/c other animals were also once worshiped in the Middle East Other scholars- pigs, and other animals tabooed in the Bible and Koran, were once totemic symbols of dif tribal clan s. But if we agree with this, we have to think that maybe clean animals were also totems. Author prefers Moodiness approach. Placed it in a natural context of health and disease where definite mundane and practical forces were at work. Need to adopt a broader deaf of public health that includes the essential processes by which animals, plants, and people manage to coexist in viable natural and cultural communities. Authors hype: the Bible and Koran condemned the pig because pig farming was a threat to the integrity of the basic cultural and natural ecosystems of the Middle East. (40) History shows the Hebrews were nomadic pastoralist living in arid regions. Pigs dont do well here (they cant sweat) and gain most weight when eating nuts, fruits, tubers, and grainsmaking them a direct competitor of man. (41-42) Pigs only poop and pee everywhere when temps get above 84 deg BC they deed to cool themselves off. Below 84 they keep their business and sleeping quarters separate. So only Really dirty BC of natural causes, not pigs want, but their need Pork was a luxury food. Only meat, no milk, fibers, labor 7,000-2,000 BC- 60 fold increase on human pop in mid east, so hade and water( what a pig needs) became more scarce SOCIO- pigs tasted good, but too expensive to feed them and keep them cool, so better to interdict the consumption of pork entirely, and concentrate on other livestock. (ECOLOGICAL EXPLANATION) Pig Lovers- New Guiana and the South Pacific Melanesian islands swine is holy and must be sacrificed to the ancestors and eaten on all important occasions (marriage, funeral, etc) -pigs must be sacrificed to declare war and make peace -sometimes huge feasts and all the tribes pigs are eaten at once! Vomit to make room for more) Then years to rebuild the herd Just to do it all over again. -one cannot truly be human except in the company of pigs. (46) Pig love involves sacrificing and eating of pigs on special occasions (46) The climax of pig love is the incorporation of the pig as flesh into the flesh of the human host and of the pig as spirit int o the spirit of the ancestors. (46) New Guiana- Marina people. Every 12 years each Marina subgroup, or clan, have a pig festival that is a year long (called khaki) 2-3 months after khaki, clan engages in armed combat with enemy clans, lots of death, and either loss or gain of territory. Each clan sacrifices more pigs during fighting. Now NO MORE pigs. Fighting STOPS. Plant rumba trees in sacred spot. Every adult male touches the tree as planted. War magician talks to ancestors. No more pigs, thankful to be alive, the fighting is over, no more fights as long as tree stays in ground. Now they begin raising more pigs. When enough for another major sacrifice, they uproot the tree and have another fight. This is all not crazy. Every part of this cycle is integrated within a complex, self-regulating ecosystem, that effectively adjusts the size and distribution of the Testaments (another clan) human and animal population to conform to available resources and production opportunities. (48) How do they decide when they have enough pigs to thank the ancestors properly? Marina have no calendar and numbers dont go past 3. Pig to people ratio. Women have to care for the pigs, as well as gardens, families, and household. Caring for 6 grown pigs uses half of her energy. More pigs?more people. More pigs and more people= more work for women. Pigs eat garden, they get angry, neighbors fight. Move houses away from each other= less secure = more Jittery. Women start to get angry and snap at families. Men check tree for growth, women yell, start a new khaki. Allies come to see if they are prosperous and powerful enough to continue supporting Practical explanation to love: Scarcity of meat in their diet. Pork is their best potential source of high-quality animal fat and protein. Makes good ecological sense to raise pigs. Temp and humidity ideal for pigs. Can feed by roaming through forest. BUT: Unlimited growth of pig pop can only lead to competition between man and pig. Can endanger gardens if pop. Let go too far Growing pigs take more time to feed, pulling away from feeding people Virgin land= efficiency of agricultural system plummets SO, khaki takes place Enhances the ability of the group to survive and defend its territory (55) by: Raises the level of protein intake for the entire group during the rumba truce?heather pop. By linking the khaki to then of the truce, ancestors guarantee massive doses f high-quality fats and proteins are consumed at the period of greatest social stress- in the months before the fighting Able to attract and reward allies when they are most needed-Just before the war Relationship between success in raising pigs and military power Rapport insists -correctly, I believe- that in a fundamental ecological sense, the size of a groups pig surplus does indicate its productive and military strength and does validate or invalidate its territorial claims. In other words, the entire system results in an efficient distribution of plants, animals, and people in the region, from a human ecological point of view. (56

Fire Engineering Design Project Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Fire Engineering Design Project - Assignment Example The perspectives of a variety of experts in the field of fire engineering will be explored. Appendix One Fire engineering may be better classified as the implementation of engineering regulations, laws and professional assessments. These elements may be based upon a cognitive evaluation of human motivation and an empirical comprehension of fire related effects in order to: Preserve life property, environmental resources and national heritages. Assess the dangers and potentials of fire related incidents. Methodologically assess the maximum protective and preventative requisites which are necessary to minimize the results of fire events. The endeavor of fire engineering is to reduce the consequences of fire in the vicinity of adjoining edifices and structures. This is required by national codification and convention. During the past thirty years, edifice related legislation has deviated from complete prescriptive mandates to more flexible rules as demonstrated by research and developme nt in the field. Many experts agree that the presently accepted regulatory documents which are designated Approved Document B (ADB) are not adapted to large open and more intricately constructed structures. In addition, the Approved Document B is not adapted to rehabilitated structures. Many of the requisites recommended in Approved Document B are non existent in edifices which were constructed prior to its inception. An example of this would be a structure with one staircase and one conspicuous egress point (Cooke 2011). The evaluation of the methods of escape inside of a structure, notwithstanding new or rehabilitated structures is reliant upon the aspects of the structure. The perspective for such a structure would be different if the structure were an office, a shop or an institution of higher education. The accepted conventions require that the structure or edifice be erected in agreement with the design recommendations that are within the parameters of Approved Document B. In accordance with this perspective, a compliant solution is implemented. This compliant solution requires strict adherence the design criteria. These criteria are not restricted to the Building Regulations and Approved Document B. There are roughly 120 documents which are currently set as criteria which may be applied as a design matrix for fire engineering (Lawrence Webster Forrest 2012). As a point of reference, the designer must consider the number of occupants who will occupy a structure at a predetermined moment. Subsequently, as architects plan and implement the required endeavors in order to ascertain various requisites, the fire engineer endeavors to calculate the planning of a structure's means of egress. Approved Document B accepts two techniques which may be applied to fire engineering. The primary technique is founded upon linear area abstractions. These abstractions may apply a value of six square meters per person in the case of an office environment or seven meters per person in the situation of a library. The Approved Document B table may be applied in order to provide a comparative analysis with similar structures with parallel applications. The Approved Document B, Table 4 suggests the application of the following standards: Optimal Occupancy of Persons Minimum number of egresses 60 1 600 2 Greater than 600 3 The coordinates of egress routes and the final exit doors are required to be accessible and recognizable by all occupants. The number of egresses